This project was made possible by the very generous support of an anonymous donor and
Pulling together a project of this size takes a lot of work. The help of Jayme Nelson, Katherine Hill and Kathryn Wagner from Inside Education was invaluable. We couldn’t have done it without you. Thank you!
AC Atienza, Brendan Bate, Shannon Smithwick, Steff Stephansson, Kaleigh Watson, Andrew Wilson.
Forests are essential in maintaining the balance of the Earth’s atmosphere, water cycle, and climate. They provide habitats for countless organisms, support the livelihoods of billions of humans, and contribute to soil fertility. Forests provide key resources for many industries, such as lumber, paper manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, tourism, and food. They offer recreational areas, spiritual and cultural significance, and are vital for research and education [1]. In Canada, forests cover 3.6 million square kilometres of land, which is about 40% of the country [2].
Forest types are defined based on their characteristics such as tree density, geographical location, climate, height, land use, and ecological function. There are three types of forests based on latitude: boreal, temperate and tropical [3].
As seen in this map of Canada, the boreal forest dominates northern regions [4].
Learning about forests helps people understand how their local forests have been managed in the past, and advocate for better ways to take care of them. This can help reduce deforestation by raising awareness of the consequences of forest loss, while promoting the importance of restoration and conservation of these important ecosystems. This, in turn, helps our waters.
| Trees Shrubs Flowering plants |
Ferns Mosses Lichens |
Fungi Mammals Birds |
Reptiles Insects Microbes |
| Sunlight Soil Minerals | Rocks Water |
Water, an abiotic element, is essential to forests, serving as a critical component in the symbiotic relationship fuelling the forest ecosystem. At the core of this relationship is evapotranspiration, where water is recycled back into the atmosphere from forests through a combination of evaporation from soil and plant surfaces and transpiration from plant foliage [7].
Between 20% to 90% of precipitation that falls on forests is returned to the atmosphere through evapotranspiration, demonstrating forests’ role in the water cycle and regulating atmospheric moisture [8]. The role of water in forest ecosystems extends beyond evapotranspiration; water that doesn’t vaporize can become runoff, adding to streams and lakes, while the remainder sinks into the ground and recharges groundwater reserves.
Forests act as nature’s water purifiers. As water travels through forested landscapes, it is naturally filtered as the forest soils, microbes, and plants absorb pollutants such as mercury and pesticides [9]. This natural filtration process enhances water quality. In addition, forests help control when and how much water flows into water bodies; soil erosion is reduced when water moves slowly through and across the land [10]. This regulation is important for keeping stable water quality and supply for nearby communities.
Deforestation is the deliberate clearing of trees and forest areas without the intention of replanting. Humans have been cutting down forests throughout history to create space for farming and raising animals, to obtain wood for heating, and building. This has changed the way places around the world look. For example, 2,000 years ago, 80% of Western Europe was covered in trees, but now only 34% is [11]. In North America, about half of the eastern forests were chopped down between the 1600s and the 1870s to use the wood for building and for farming. China has also seen a big decrease in its forests over 4,000 years, with just over 20% remaining forested today [12]. Currently, the most global deforestation is happening in tropical rainforests. As new roads are built in rainforests, they make the resources in these once-isolated regions easier to access which encourages more roads and more resource harvesting.
Recent studies identify that sea-level rise and increased saltwater flooding from storms and high tides are reasons for deforestation. These factors cause the groundwater level to rise, resulting in saturated soils in low coastal forest areas. This waterlogged condition deprives tree roots of oxygen, stressing the trees, preventing new growth, and eventually leading to the death of the tree [13]. In deforested areas, trees are unable to reseed and regrow.
Deforestation impacts water resources and the hydrological cycle in both the present and long-term future, changing ecosystems and water availability and quality across landscapes. Understanding how deforestation affects water involves considering several key aspects:
Forests absorb rainfall and release water vapor back into the atmosphere through transpiration. This process contributes to the formation of clouds and precipitation. Deforestation disrupts this cycle, leading to reduced rainfall in some areas, which can worsen conditions of drought [14]. Additionally, the absence of trees means that less water is absorbed by the forest floor, altering the flow of groundwater and surface water systems [15].
When trees are cut down, there is no canopy or roots to absorb rainfall, which can lead to more water running off the land instead of slowly being absorbed by plants or soil. This is called surface runoff, and can carry sediments, nutrients from fertilizers or sewage such as phosphates or ammonia, pesticides, and other pollutants into rivers, lakes, and streams, significantly lowering the water quality [16]. Without trees and other plants, water isn’t filtered as well, and this can cause too many nutrients and pollutants to build up in water bodies. Ammonia and phosphates are naturally occurring, but when there is too much added from external sources, that can cause algae blooms, which can disrupt a healthy aquatic ecosystem, throwing it off balance. This is called eutrophication; it depletes oxygen in the water, blocks sunlight, and the algae can be toxic to some animals and plants. Eutrophication can completely change an aquatic ecosystem.
Forests help control the amount of water run-off in watersheds by soaking up rain and snowmelt and slowly releasing it into rivers and groundwater, ensuring a steady supply of water. Deforestation can lead to more erratic water availability, with periods of flood followed by droughts, affecting ecosystems and communities relying on consistent water sources for drinking, agriculture, and industry [17].
Tree roots and forest floor hold soil in place, preventing erosion. When forests are cleared, the exposed soil is more susceptible to being washed away by rainwater. This erosion leads to the loss of fertile topsoil and contributes to the sedimentation of rivers and streams, affecting aquatic habitats and increasing the cost of water treatment for human use [18].
Deforestation contributes to climate change by releasing greenhouse gases such as stored carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere when trees are burned or decay. With an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the world weather patterns change, resulting in changes to when, how and how much water is arriving in an area. Forest loss leads to less evapotranspiration, which can decrease local rainfall and lead to drier conditions [19].
Forests have a cooling effect on the environment by providing shade and releasing moisture into the air through transpiration. When trees are removed, the temperatures in those areas can rise, which affects how water evaporates and reduces the amount of water in water bodies [20]. Higher temperatures can disrupt the temperature of nearby water, which can harm fish and other aquatic life.
Deforestation can significantly impact bioswales, which are landscape elements designed to concentrate and convey stormwater runoff while removing debris and pollution [41]. Bioswales are important for managing water flow in both urban and natural settings, improving water quality, and supporting local ecosystems.
Urban forests provide recreational spaces for residents and enhance mental and physical well-being. They also improve the aesthetic value of urban areas, making cities more liveable and attractive [42]. Deforestation deprives urban dwellers of these benefits, potentially leading to decreased quality of life and lower property values.
Canada’s diverse landscape is home to a variety of forests, each unique to the specific climates across the country. From the coastal temperate rainforests of British Columbia to the cold-resilient boreal forests stretching across the north, and the mixed woods of the eastern provinces, Canada’s forests are varied. This diversity underscores the ecological richness of Canada’s natural heritage.
There are eight types of forests found in Canada:
The boreal zone can be found between 50 and 60 degrees latitude, and makes up 75% of forests in Canada [21].
In southwestern Ontario, the “Carolinian” forests are the smallest forest region in Canada and cover just 1% of Canada’s land area. While they contain the greatest number of native tree species of any region [22], they are also home to about one-third of the country’s endangered species [23]. Increased industrialization, urban expansion, and agricultural practices have put immense pressures on the Carolinian forest, leading to the decline of many species.
Coastal temperate forests along Canada’s West Coast originally made up less than 0.2% of the Earth’s surface, and more than half have been lost [24].
The Columbia Forest region is found in south-eastern British Columbia’s wet belt, between the central plateau and the Rocky Mountains. It is located at lower elevations in river valleys, mixed with subalpine forests. While this region is less wet than the coast, it gets plenty of moisture from snowmelt, supporting the forest. Many of the same types of trees can be found in both this region and the coast, though the Columbia Forest has a slightly smaller variety of species [25].
The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Forest region extends from southeastern Manitoba to Quebec’s Gaspé Peninsula, making it the second largest forest in Canada. This forest serves as a transitional zone, bridging the gap between the deciduous Carolinian forests in the south and the predominantly coniferous Boreal Forest [26].
The montane forests located in central British Columbia and western Alberta are characterized by their dry conditions. The tree species in these forests are heavily influenced by geographical elevation; some species will grow low in valleys or flatlands or along rivers, while others only grow higher up on mountain sides. Sunny sides of valleys will have different species than shady sides. Fire has been an important natural process here as well; some trees are highly adapted to regrow quickly after a forest fire. [27].
Spanning British Columbia and Alberta, the subalpine forest region is known for cooler temperatures, brief growing season, and extended winters. Avalanches significantly contribute to the diversity and dynamic changes within this forest area [28].
The Acadian Forest, the main forest type in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick, is exclusive to these areas. It is home to over 30 native tree species. Today, less than 1% of the original old-growth Acadian Forest still exists, placing it among the most uncommon forest types in North America [29].
Canada’s vast landscapes and rich natural resources, including its extensive forests and freshwater systems, are under increasing pressure from various environmental challenges and human activities.
The Boreal forests face a significant challenge from climate change, with nearly 80% of these forests situated above permafrost (a soil layer that is frozen year-round) [30]. As global temperatures rise, this permafrost thaws, turning the ground beneath the forests into soft terrain. As a result, trees can be destabilized, leaning, falling over, or even die because their roots are not firmly anchored in the ground. When a tree dies, it releases carbon back into the atmosphere as it decomposes, becoming a source of atmospheric carbon. Experts at the International Boreal Forest Research Association highlight the role of conserving boreal forests in mitigating the effects of climate change, emphasizing their importance in the broader environmental context [31].
Some Canada-specific examples of loss of water-related forest conservation concerns highlight the intricate balance between natural ecosystems and human activities:
One of the most prominent examples of environmental concern related to water and forests in Canada is the development of the Alberta oil sands. Oil sand is just that – oil mixed with sand – and it is often called bitumen. Extracting bitumen from the ground, moving it, and separating the oil from the sand requires a significant amount of water, and the processes involved can lead to large amounts of toxic water or “tailings” [32]. Because bitumen is found in large deposits under the boreal forest, large swaths of the forest have to be removed in order to mine the oilsands. This has not only reduced forest cover and wildlife habitat, but also affected the quality and quantity of water in the region due to industrial emissions and water withdrawal from rivers and groundwater [33]. Because the Athabasca river flows past many of the oil sands mines, there is concern about the health of the Peace – Athabasca delta ecosystem as the water eventually pours into the Arctic ocean. The consequences of oil sands extraction is a matter of significant scientific and social debate.
British Columbia and, more recently, Alberta, has faced a massive outbreak of the mountain pine beetle, which has killed millions of acres of pine trees across the provinces. The beetle larvae are killed off by winter temperatures in the -25°C to -40°C range at different times in the late-fall to early-spring period [34]. However, the warmer temperatures brought by climate change has allowed the infestations to increase and has led to a significant loss of forest cover [35]. The resulting deforestation affects watershed stability, water quality, and the region’s ability to manage water resources effectively, contributing to increased runoff and sedimentation in water bodies. The dead trees also raise the risk of wildfires.
Canada’s boreal forest, one of the largest intact forest ecosystems on the planet, faces threats from industrial logging practices [36]. These practices often lead to forest degradation, which disrupts the natural water cycle, reduces biodiversity, and affects water quality in nearby lakes, rivers, and streams. The loss of forested areas compromises the ecosystem’s ability to filter water, exacerbate flooding, and regulate climate.
The number and strength of wildfires in Canada have been increasing, a trend that is partly due to climate change. These fires not only result in immediate loss of forest cover but they also have long-term effects on watershed health and water quality [37]. After a wildfire, the loss of plants leads to more surface-water runoff, increased soil erosion, and a higher risk of flooding. This can harm the availability and quality of water for communities, agriculture, and wildlife.
How can communities contribute to reducing water-related concerns in the context of deforestation?
Through collective action, education, and sustainable practices, local communities can significantly impact the preservation of forests and water resources. Here are several ways in which communities can contribute:
Communities can organize or participate in reforestation projects to restore degraded forest lands. Planting native tree species helps to rebuild ecosystems, improve soil health, enhance water absorption into the ground, reducing runoff and erosion [38]. Reforestation also restores the natural water cycle, increasing the resilience of forests to fires and pests.
Agricultural activities are a significant driver of deforestation, especially when they involve slash-and-burn techniques or the conversion of forests into farmland. Communities can adopt sustainable agriculture practices such as agroforestry, which integrates trees and shrubs into agricultural landscapes [39]. This practice not only reduces the need for deforestation but also helps in improving soil quality and enhancing biodiversity. See also our piece on “regenerative agriculture“.
Communities can support sustainable forest management practices that aim to balance ecological, social, and economic objectives. This includes advocating for and participating in the sustainable harvesting of timber, non-timber forest products, and wildlife. By supporting sustainable forest management, communities help ensure that forest resources are used responsibly, while maintaining their ability to regulate water cycles and quality.
Communities can contribute to reducing deforestation by minimizing their consumption of products that lead to forest degradation, such as unsustainable palm oil, paper, and wood [40]. Promoting recycling, responsible purchasing, and the use of eco-friendly materials can lessen the pressure to harvest from forests.
This question prompts students to think about the role of forests in the hydrological cycle, including their impact on rainfall patterns, groundwater recharge, and the regulation of surface water flow.
Discuss the effects of deforestation on rivers, lakes, and wetlands, focusing on biodiversity loss, habitat destruction, and changes in water chemistry.
Explore the link between deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, climate change, and discuss how altered climate patterns can affect water availability and quality.
Ask students to research and share case studies where deforestation has led to changes in water supply, quality, or access, particularly in vulnerable or Indigenous communities.
Prompt students to reflect on the ethical dilemmas involved in balancing conservation efforts with economic development and the needs of local communities.
Discuss how deforestation in one region can have ripple effects on water resources in other areas, potentially leading to conflicts over water or necessitating international cooperation to address shared challenges.
Students assume the roles of various stakeholders affected by deforestation (e.g., farmers, government officials, Indigenous Peoples, conservationists). Through negotiation and debate, they must negotiate a sustainable land management plan that balances economic needs with the conservation of forests and protection of water resources.
Organize a tree planting day where students implement a reforestation project in their community or school grounds. This activity can be extended to include water conservation efforts, such as creating rain gardens or installing rain barrels, to emphasize the link between healthy forests and water resources.
Using GIS (Geographic Information System) software or online platforms, students create interactive maps that track deforestation hotspots around the world and their proximity to critical water resources. This project encourages students to analyse spatial data and understand the global scale of deforestation impacts.
Host a debate on issues related to deforestation and water rights. Topics could include the rights of Indigenous Peoples to their ancestral forests, the responsibilities of corporations in water-stressed regions, or the role of international agreements in protecting forests and water. This encourages critical thinking and public speaking skills.
Students design and implement an awareness campaign aimed at educating their school and local community about the importance of forests in maintaining healthy water cycles. The campaign could include posters, social media content, interactive workshops, and community presentations.
Organize a viewing of documentaries that explore the relationship between forests and water resources. Follow up the viewing with a guided discussion or Q&A session with experts in forestry, water management, or environmental conservation to deepen students’ understanding and engagement with the topic.
We provide Canadian educational resources on water practices to promote conservation and sustainability. Our team crafts current and relevant content, while encouraging feedback and engagement.
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Ross has extensive executive experience in Operations, Governance, Information Technology and Strategy at the board and senior management level including Mancal Corporation, Mancal Energy, Highridge Exploration and Atlantis Resources. He has worked in Oil and Gas, Coal, Commercial Real Estate, Portfolio Management, Recreation, Retail and Water and Wastewater Treatment. His experience is also geographically diverse having overseen operations in Canada, the United States, United Kingdom and Northern Ireland. Additionally, he has been on the board of companies with operations in Argentina, Azerbaijan, Barbados, Kazakhstan, and Russia. He has served on numerous Public, Private and Not for Profit Boards across a number of industries.
Ross has been active on several industry Boards and committees including the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) and The Schulich School of Engineering Industry Advisory Council at the Schulich School of Engineering.
Brian is a seasoned Cleantech entrepreneur with a proven history of successfully bringing complex water technologies to the market. With over 25 years of experience, he has led various organizations to achieve significant milestones in the industry.
Having started as the founding CEO of the Pressure Pipe Inspection Company (PPIC) and later taking the helm at the Water Technology Acceleration Project (WaterTAP), Brian’s entrepreneurial spirit has been instrumental in driving innovation and growth within the sector.
He is an active investor in the cleantech sector and has served on many boards including the Ontario Clean Water Agency.
Actively engaged in industry associations like AWWA, WEF, IWA, and ASCE, Brian enjoys collaborating with fellow professionals to promote advancements in the field.
Brian holds an undergraduate degree and a PhD in Physics from Queen’s University, which has provided him with a solid technical foundation. As a member of the Institute of Corporate Directors, he brings valuable insights to corporate governance.